Church History – Church Growth & Denominationalism

• At first, Christians worshipped alongside Jewish believers (Jewish Christianity) in the Synagogues (see evidence of this in Acts 17:1-5; 18:1-3).
• The loose organization of the Early Church resulted in lots of differences in interpretation of Christian beliefs and practices.
  • Including the churches in Rome, Thessalonica, Corinth, Philippi, Ephesus, Colossae, and Antioch, there were churches outside the Roman Empire.
• It is necessary to discuss the Catholic Church because it is the earliest recognizable Christian leadership structure from which all other denominations were derived.
• The leaders of the Catholic Church often drew on their link to Christ (through Apostle Peter) to legitimize their right to leadership over the Church.
• The origins of the Catholic Church:
  • According to Catholic tradition, the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ, which leadership Christ conferred to Peter
  • “And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock, I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.” (Matthew 16:18).

The Apostles are the Leaders of the Church

• 45 – 95 AD – The Church is under the leadership of the Apostles (Galatians 2:9), and they buttress the teachings of Christ through their letters (epistles).
• 60 AD – Peter, the first Bishop of Rome. Although it is not definite that he held the title, evidence indicates that Early Christians looked to Peter as having the authority of the Bishop over the Early Church.
• 67 – 76 AD – Peter consecrated Linus (II Timothy 4:21) as Bishop of Rome after him, thus, beginning the line of leadership that leads to the current pontiff (Pope Francis).
• 99 AD – Death of the last apostle (John the Beloved) at Ephesus.

Era of the Apostolic Fathers

• 100 AD – Over 40 Christian communities are established in areas such as Armenia, Iran, India. The Church was loosely organized which resulted in divers interpretation of Christian beliefs.
• 2^nd c. AD – A hierarchy is developed with a central bishop having authority over the clergy in his city. This led to a structure in which bishops of politically important cities exerted greater authority.
  • Bishops of the churches in Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome held the highest authority.
  • From the 2^nd c. bishops would gather to settle policy and doctrinal issues.

Although there is some debate about the timeline, the Apostolic Fathers are the group of Christian leaders who lived roughly from 75 to 200 AD.

Church historians have accorded the name “Fathers” to the pastors, leaders, and earliest figures of the early Church.

Unsurprisingly, most of the Apostolic Fathers had connection with John the Beloved being that he was the only apostle to have lived long enough. The three chief Apostolic Fathers are: Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp.

Clement of Rome

• The 4^th bishop of Rome (88 – 99 AD) and consecrated by Apostle Peter.
• He was a contemporary of Peter and Paul and a direct disciple of Apostle Paul.
  • “And I intreat thee also, true yokefellow; help those women which laboured with me in the gospel, with Clement also, and with other my fellow labourers, whose names are in the book of life.” (Philippians 4:3)
• Outside the New Testament, his 1^st epistle is considered the oldest epistle to the churches.
• His epistle was widely regarded and circulated in the early church and his works provide valuable insight into the early development of Christian doctrine and practice.

Ignatius of Antioch

• Ignatius was likely born around 35 – 50 AD.
• He was the Bishop of Antioch and tradition has it that he was ordained a bishop by Peter (in 69 AD).
• Because of his close association with the apostles, he is considered to be one of the three most important Apostolic Fathers.
• It is also recorded that he knew Apostle John directly.
• En route to his execution (in Rome), he wrote letters that are preserved as examples of Early Church theology.
• Eucharist Beliefs – Ignatius strongly opposed heretical teachings (especially those associated with Gnosticism) and his letters emphasized the importance of unity, obedience to bishops, and the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.

Polycarp of Smyrna

• A disciple of John and instructed by the apostles. It is noted that he was ordained bishop by John.
• He served in this position for many years, providing leadership and guidance to the local church.
• His letter to the Philippians (one of the earliest Christian writings) emphasized the importance of faith, righteousness, and obedience to God.
• Polycarp had a close relationship with Ignatius of Antioch and is mentioned in Ignatius’ letter as an esteemed bishop.
• He had the most direct contact with those who had seen Jesus.
• Polycarp is also regarded as one of three main Apostolic Fathers.

Papias of Hierapolis

• Bishop of Hierapolis (now Pamukkale in Turkey) around the time of Ignatius of Rome.
• A hearer of John teachings and a companion of Polycarp.
• Papias is primarily known for his work called “Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord”. Unfortunately, apart from fragments and quotations, not much of this work exists today.
• He emphasized the importance of oral tradition in preserving and transmitting the teachings of Jesus and the apostles. He believed that the sayings and actions of Jesus that weren’t recorded were also valuable and ought to be preserved.
• Millennialism – Papias is known for his millennial beliefs, which suggest a literal 1000-year reign of Christ on earth following His second coming.

Quadratus of Athens

• Quadratus is known as an early Christian apologist.
• He was a disciple of the apostles and appointed as Bishop of Athens after the death of his predecessor (Publius).
• Although his dates of birth and death are unknown, he is believed to have lived around the same time as Papias.
• Apologetic Work – Quadratus is known for writing an apologetic letter addressed to the Roman Emperor Hadrian around 125 AD. The purpose of the letter was to defend the Christian faith and provide evidence of its truth.
  • In his letter, he sets forth arguments for the validity of Christianity, sighting the miracles of Jesus and the eyewitness testimonies of those who encountered Jesus.
  • Although the letter has been lost to time, it is mentioned by Eusebius who quoted portions of the letter in his own writings.

• One of the earliest doctrinal disputes in the Early Church was about the place of the Mosaic Law in Christian traditions.
• Around 50 AD – During the Council of Jerusalem (recorded in Acts chapter 15), it was decided that Gentiles could be Christians without having to adopt all the laws of Moses (Acts 15:23-29).
  • As more Gentiles were converted, Christianity drifted away from Jewish practices and began to establish itself as a separate religion.
  • At this point, tensions began to cause starker differences between Christians and Jewish believers; this came to head when Christians refused to join the 3^rd Jewish Revolt (the Bar Kokhba Revolt) in 132 AD.
• The writings of the Apostolic Fathers give an insight to the theology of the Early Church and the formation of Christian practices.
• 325 AD – The Council of Nicea. Christian leaders debated about the divinity of Christ. They concluded that Jesus is God and man at the same time.
  • Seven ecumenical (representing several different Christian Churches) councils that resulted in the Nicene Creed.

With the cessation of persecution, martyrdom was no longer a possibility, and this allowed a new form of spirituality to emerge—the white martyrdom of Monasticism.

The monks saw themselves as the successors of the martyrs; frontline fighters in the struggle against the world, the flesh, and the devil.

Anthony of Egypt

• Anthony is considered the father of Christian monasticism.
• At the age of 18, he entered the church at the moment the words of Jesus in Matthew 19 verse 21 were being read. He immediately obeyed those words.
  • “Jesus said unto him, If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven: and come and follow me.” (Matthew 19:21)
• He retreated into the Egyptian desert in the 3^rd c. (living in tombs) and lived there in solitude.
• His teachings and life laid the foundation for monasticism.

Patrick of Ireland

• Patrick is believed to have been born in Britain.
• He was captured and taken to Ireland as a slave where he got converted to Christianity, and managed to escape back to Britain.
• After escaping slavery, he felt called to return to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity.
• St. Patrick played a major role in the spread of Christianity in Ireland; establishing monasteries, churches, and schools.
• He established monastic communities where study of the Scriptures and pursuit of holiness was encouraged.
• Trinity – He taught the concept of Trinity to the Irish people.

Benedict of Nursia

• Benedict of Nursia was regarded as the founder of Western monasticism.
• He established the Benedictine Order.
• He also authored the “Rule of Saint Benedict”, the basis of Middle Age monastic life.

Benedict of Nursia – 480 A.D. – Rule of Saint Benedict. The rule emphasized prayer, manual labour, and communal living.

Throughout the medieval centuries monastic reformers arose to call their fellow monks back to the purity and simplicity of of St. Benedict’s Rule. Some of such were St. Bernard of Clairvaux and St. Francis of Assisi.

Bernard of Clairvaux

• St. Bernard was a prominent Cistercian monk theologian. He was born in 1090 AD in Burgundy, France.
• He emphasized a return to the simplicity and austerity of early monasticism and contemplative prayer (strict adherence to the Rule of Saint Benedict).
• Under his leadership, the monastery of Clairvaux grew rapidly, establishing many branches throughout Europe.
• Bernard was a prolific writer and an influential preacher. He wrote on theology, mysticism, and spirituality.
• He also participated actively in the Second Crusade, urging European rulers to take up arms against the Muslims.

Francis of Assisi

• Francis of Assisi was born Giovanni Francesco di Bernardone and was the son of a wealthy cloth merchant of Assisi.
• He spent his youth in rebellious living, squandering his father’s wealth, and dreaming of knighthood and glory, he joined the army.
• He was captured and after a bout of illness, he began to see the vanity of his ways.
• His conversion coincided with his identification with the helpless, poor, and sick.
• Francis is renowned for founding the Franciscan Order.
• He embraced a life of poverty, preaching, and service to the poor.
• Franciscans were among the most prominent orders in the Middle Ages.

The ideals of the monastic reformers were too lofty to survive the allurements of time and history. After their passing, it became increasingly difficult to preserve the principles they stood for.

• Constantine the Great was the first Christian Roman Emperor who ruled from 306 to 337 AD. He played a pivotal role in the transformation of the Roman Empire from paganism to Christianity.
• 312 AD – Constantine’s victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge was influenced by his vision of the Christian symbol, the Chi-Rho. Thereafter, he embraced Christianity.
• 313 AD – He is best known for issuing the Edit of Milan which granted religious tolerance to Christians and essentially ended Christian persecution in the Roman Empire.
• 325 AD – Constantine convened the Council of Nicea to establish Christian theological unity and combat heresy.
• 330 AD – He played a major role in political and administrative reforms in the empire. He established Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as the empire capital.
• 337 AD – Constantine laid the foundation for the dominance of Christianity in the Roman Empire. He died on May 22, 337 AD and is remembered as one of the most influential emperors in Roman history.

St. Helena

St. Helena, also known as Helena Augusta, was the mother of Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. Born in the mid-3^rd century, she played a significant role in early Christianity.

Helena is best known for her pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where she reportedly discovered the True Cross upon which Jesus Christ was crucified.

She was instrumental in promoting Christianity within the Roman Empire and had a profound influence on her son, Constantine, who later became the first Christian Emperor.

Helena’s efforts in spreading and supporting the Christian faith contributed to the rise of Christianity as a dominant religion in the Roman Empire.

Valentinian I

• Called “…a good man and capable of holding the reins of the empire.”
• A steadfast Christian that rose through the military ranks.

Valentinian I was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 364 to 375 AD. He was known for his military skills and his efforts to restore stability to the Roman Empire.

In 364 AD, he divided the empire into two parts, with himself ruling the western half. He implemented a strong and centralized government, focusing on military reforms, fortification construction, and administrative improvements.

Valentinian I sought to combat corruption and restore discipline within the Roman army. However, his reign was marked by conflicts with barbarian tribes, particularly along the empire’s borders. Valentinian I died in 375 AD, leaving a mixed legacy of military successes and challenges in maintaining Roman control.

Theodosius I

• A devout Christian and the last man to rule a unified Eastern and Western Roman Empire.
• Made Christianity the Empire’s official religion (379 AD).

Theodosius I, also known as Theodosius the Great, was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 379 to 395 AD.

He is best known for his role in establishing Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Theodosius I issued edicts that outlawed paganism and promoted Christianity, effectively ending the long-standing tradition of Roman polytheism. He also called the Council of Constantinople in 381 AD, which reaffirmed and clarified key Christian doctrines.

Theodosius I was a skilled military leader who successfully defended the empire against various threats, including barbarian invasions. However, his reign was also marked by conflicts and massacres, such as the brutal suppression of a rebellion in Thessalonica.

Despite these controversies, Theodosius I left a lasting impact on the Roman Empire by cementing Christianity as its dominant religion and shaping its religious and political landscape.

Pulcheria

• Ruled as a regent for her brother, Theodosius II.
• The driving force behind the Council of Chalcedon (unification of the Church).

Empress Pulcheria was a prominent figure in the Byzantine Empire during the 5th century. She served as regent for her younger brother, Emperor Theodosius II, and later as a co-ruler.

She was known for her piety and devotion to the Christian faith. She played a significant role in promoting orthodox Christianity and combating heresy.

Pulcheria also focused on strengthening the empire’s defences against external threats, particularly from barbarian invasions. She was involved in various political and diplomatic endeavours, and her rule saw stability and prosperity in the Byzantine Empire.

Empress Pulcheria’s reign ended upon her death in 453 AD, but her influence and legacy as a powerful female ruler in Byzantine history endured.

Justinian I

• After Constantine, he is the best-known Christian Emperor.
• He made great efforts to revitalize the Empire.
• Rebuilt Constantinople and built Hagia Sophia.

Justinian I, also known as Justinian the Great, was a Byzantine Emperor who reigned from 527 to 565 AD. He is remembered for his efforts to restore the Roman Empire’s former glory.

Justinian I is best known for his codification of Roman laws, resulting in the creation of the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil Law). This legal code had a profound influence on legal systems throughout Europe.

Attempting to reclaim lost territories in the Western Roman Empire, Justinian I also embarked on ambitious military campaigns. His most notable general, Belisarius, achieved significant victories in North Africa and Italy.

Emperor Justinian I was a patron of Byzantine art and architecture, most notably seen in the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

However, his reign was also marked by challenges, including the devastating outbreak of the bubonic plague and periods of political unrest.

Overall, Justinian I left a lasting impact on the Byzantine Empire through his legal reforms and ambitious military campaigns.

Arian Controversy

Arius of Alexandria lived in the 4^th century. His views were considered heretical. He held the following beliefs:

• Jesus was created – There was a time when Jesus did not exist.
• Heterousios – (Greek heteros, “different”; ousia, “essence”). The belief that Jesus was of a different essence than God the Father.

He emphasized the uniqueness and transcendence of God; that the essence of God was indivisible (too unique to be shared), therefore, the Son must be a creature.

His main opponent was Athanasius, who believed that a mere creature, however exalted, could never atone for our sins. Only God Himself could rescue mankind from sin and death.

Nevertheless, at the Council of Nicea, it was established that Jesus was of the same substance (homoousios, “of identical substance”) as the Father.

Nestorian Controversy

Nestorius was the Archbishop of Constantinople from April 10, 438 AD to August 431 AD and the Nestorian Controversy surrounded his understanding of the nature of Christ.

• Hypostatic union – Nestorian theology suggests that there were two separate and distinct persons in the incarnate Christ (human and divine).

Cyril, the Archbishop of Alexandria opposed this teaching and believed that Christ was one person with two natures (fully human and fully divine).

The Council of Ephesus (431 AD) ruled Nestorius a heretic.

Monophysite Controversy

Eutyches was an archimandrite (a senior monk) and is credited with the Monophysite view of Christ’s nature. However, it is said that he rejected this interpretation of his teachings.

• Monophysitism – (Greek monos, “one”; physis, “nature”). The view that after incarnation, Jesus had only one nature; His human nature was subsumed with His divine nature. His nature was neither fully human or fully divine.

This controversy took place in the 5^th and 6^th centuries. And against the attempts of the Council of Chalcedon, the Coptic and Syriac Orthodox Churches and the Armenian Apostolic Church emerged.

Filioque Controversy

The key players in the Filioque Controversy were the bishops and theologians of Western Europe and what later became the Eastern Orthodox Church.

• Filioque – A phrase that affirms the belief that the Holy Spirit also proceeds from the Son.

In the 9^th century, the Latin Church (West) began inserting the phrase “Filioque” into the Nicene Creed. The original creed stated that the Holy Spirit comes from the Father.

The Eastern Orthodox Church argued that the phrase had been introduced without the consent of the Ecumenical Council and felt their authority had been undermined.

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“…charge some that they teach no other doctrine,

Neither give heed to fables and endless genealogies, which minister questions, rather than godly edifying which is in faith: so do.

Now the end of the commandment is charity out of a pure heart, and of a good conscience, and of faith unfeigned:

From which some having swerved have turned aside unto vain jangling;

Desiring to be teachers of the law; understanding neither what they say, nor whereof they affirm.

But we know that the law is good, if a man use it lawfully;”

I Timothy 1:4-8

Causes of the Great Schism

The Great Schism of 1054 refers to the formal split between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.

While it is commonly associated with the year 1054, the schism was actually a culmination of several centuries of theological, cultural, and political differences between the eastern and western branches of Christianity.

Here are some of the key causes that led to the Great Schism:

1. Doctrinal Differences: Over time, theological disagreements emerged between the Eastern and Western churches. These disagreements included the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, the nature of the Holy Spirit’s procession (filioque controversy), and the authority of the Pope. These doctrinal disputes created tensions and deepened the divide between the two branches of Christianity.
2. Cultural and Linguistic Differences: The Eastern and Western churches developed distinct cultural and linguistic identities. Greek was the predominant language in the East, while Latin was the main language in the West. This linguistic and cultural divide contributed to a growing sense of unfamiliarity and misunderstanding between the two regions.
3. Ecclesiastical Authority: The Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, claimed a position of preeminence and authority over the entire Christian Church. However, the Eastern Church did not recognize the Pope’s authority in the same way. The Eastern Church emphasized the authority of ecumenical councils and the collective decision-making of bishops, whereas the Western Church placed greater emphasis on the authority of the Pope as the successor of St. Peter.
4. Political and Geographical Factors: The political and geographical separation between the Eastern and Western parts of the Roman Empire played a role in the schism. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to thrive. The political and cultural differences between the two regions contributed to the growing divide.
5. Mutual Excommunications: In 1054, the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, and the papal legate Cardinal Humbert exchanged mutual excommunications, which were formal declarations of being outside the Church. This act was not the sole cause of the schism but rather a symbolic representation of the already existing divisions.

It’s important to note that the Great Schism was a complex event with multiple causes, and these causes interacted and reinforced one another over time. The schism had long-lasting consequences and contributed to the development of separate theological, ecclesiastical, and cultural traditions in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches.